Introduction

Leadership is a defining feature of human societies that shapes the destinies of communities, organizations, and nations. Leadership provides direction, instills purpose, and fosters collaboration. Leaders articulate a vision, motivate others to strive for common goals, and guide their organizations through uncertainty. Without clear leadership, groups often flounder, driving

priorities emerge, morale withers, and momentum stalls. However, what does it truly mean to be a leader? Beyond occupying a formal position of authority, a leader is someone who influences and empowers others toward a purpose that transcends individual self-interest. The premise of transformative leadership pertains to the idea that everyone has the capability to lead and contribute. A genuine leader channels the aspirations and talents of their followers into cohesive action, which does not only confine to heroic individuals making large, dramatic changes and actions. Although the general principles of leadership adhere to strong visionary thinking that may set goals, purpose, and direction that inspire others to comply with a shared future. Leaders should communicate with their teams and follow up on feedback to ensure transparency and mutual understanding. Trustworthiness, honesty, integrity, and ethical leadership are the chief components for building credibility and respect. Moreover, a leader should have strong decision-making skills to make rational decisions and judgments under extreme pressure.¹ Good leadership maintains emotional intelligence, flexibility to change, encourages innovation, and continues to improve towards better team building. Leaders are not only accountable but also responsible for their actions, decisions, and the teams. They lead by promoting collaboration, managing diversity, and merit-based rewards, a leader motivates, inspires, and energizes his team to perform their best. Leaders exhibit emotional intelligence and demonstrate integrity. Moreover, leaders adapt according to the environment, learn from mistakes, and alter their course when necessary. At core a visionary leadership is expected to entrust followers with responsibility and authority to help create a better world.²

Islamic leadership builds on universal leadership traits by adding a profound ethical and spiritual layer: it is seen as a sacred trust (amanah) entailing personal accountability to God and responsibility to the community.³ Islamic leadership is derived from the holy Qur’an, hadith, and Sunnah. Examples from the life of the Prophet Muhammad⁴ provide explicit guidance on how a leader should conduct themselves. “Indeed, in the Messenger of Allah you have an excellent example for whoever has hope in Allah and the Last Day, and remembers Allah often”.⁵ Islamic leadership transcends from managerial competence by embedding ethical and spiritual dimensions into the exercise of authority. At its heart lies humility and service: a leader is first and foremost a servant to the community, conscious that authority is a divine trust for which one will ultimately be held accountable. Hence, genuine leadership is assumed reluctantly and only out of sincere duty, as emphasized by Prophet Muhammad, who warned that anyone who actively seeks power is unfit to wield it.⁶

Interwoven with humility is justice (‘adl), a Qur’anic imperative that demands the impartial treatment of every individual, regardless of social standing or wealth. Leaders who perpetrate injustice betray not only public trust but also human dignity. ⁷ However, justice in Islam is balanced by mercy (raḥmah): while rights must be upheld and wrongs redressed firmly, compassion and forgiveness temper judgments to prevent tyranny or chaos.⁸ Another important component of Islamic leadership is consultation (shūrā).⁹ From drafting the Constitution of Madinah to deliberating on strategic decisions, Prophet Muhammad modeled genuine participatory governance, seeking collective wisdom rather than imposing unilateral edicts. This practice mirrors contemporary participatory leadership, giving voice to diverse perspectives and fostering communal ownership of decisions. As mentioned earlier, Leadership in Islam is more like trustworthiness, that is (amānah). Since the Prophet was known as al-Amīn (the Trustworthy) even before his prophethood, a Muslim leader’s character is rooted in sincerity, truthfulness, and reliability. Breaches of trust, whether through financial malfeasance, deception, or broken promises, undermine personal credibility and social cohesion.¹⁰ All these qualities of a Muslim leader ultimately lead to piety (taqwā). A leader who remains perpetually mindful of divine presence governs with moral integrity that is not driven by convenience and expediency, but with commitment that promotes both divine and moral good.¹¹ In Islam, a strong and devout leader is one who holds himself accountable not only before his people, but also before the Almighty, recognizing that his authority is a sacred trust and his actions must be subject to divine scrutiny.¹²

People often look for guidance regarding leadership in the rules of the four rightly guided caliphs, as it is believed that they have implemented Islamic principles in their entire leadership program, be it social, judicial, or military. Umar ibn al Khattab, the second Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, succeeded Abu Bakar Siddique (RA) in 634 CE after his death.¹³ He exemplified how Islamic leadership principles translate into effective governance by establishing justice, consultation, trust, and service, ruling with integrity, seeking counsel, and prioritizing the welfare of his community. He is considered a just ruler, and his leadership is regarded as transformative in the history of Islam. He is titled al-Farooq (one who can segregate truth from falsehood) because of his austere lifestyle, strict justice, and humility, and Amir-ul-momineen (commander of the Muslims/momins).¹⁴ He is renowned in Islamic history as the only Caliph who held himself firmly accountable to ensure justice. During his 10-years reign, he brought major administrative reforms and vast territorial conquests and established judicial and military systems.¹⁵ Through his rigorous reforms, he translated these principles into tangible improvements, without seeking personal gain. Each of his administrative reforms flowed from his humility, consultation (shūrā), and God-consciousness (taqwā), highlighting that true authority is exercised as a solemn trust rather than a personal privilege. This study scrutinises, a detailed survey of ʿUmar’s administrative reforms, along with his governance or people-centred approach to depict his transformative leadership.

2. Key Pillars of Umar (RA) Governance

Umar ibn Khatab (R.A) tenure was marked by visionary leadership that not only led and contributed value, but his transformative leadership brought agency in individuals to call and act according to the set moral standards and values driven from the Quran, Hadith, and Sunnah. Under his leadership people followed the “initial” choice of core leadership values, which made them participate consciously in their directions, and to embody values that can create long-lasting changes in their future directions. Figure 1. Below depicts the following fundamental areas that grew exponentially under Umar’s (RA) leadership:

Figure. 1. Areas of Umar (RA) leadership.

Department of Military

Military Administration

Umar (RA) was the first ruler to establish the army as a regular and official separate department in the Muslim state. The following are the steps he took to administer the military:

Military hubs (Jund) were created by Caliph Umar (RA) for army administration purposes. These centers were established throughout the Islamic state in numerous locations to ensure that they met all the needs of the soldiers and their mounted animals. In addition to these military hubs, several cantonments were built in major cities and strategic locations.¹⁶

The Caliph Umar (RA) gave orders emphasizing that every soldier should possess knowledge of certain battle skills, specifically, swimming, marching, horse racing and riding.¹⁷

The army was organized on the battlefield as follows: the Center (Qalb), Vanguard (Muqaddamah), Right Wing (Mayimanah), Left Wing (Mayisarah), Rear (Sa’aiqah), and Extreme Rear. The remaining components were the Advanced Patrols (Tulaiha), Foraging Section (Ra’aid), Camel Corp (Rakban), Cavalry (Farsan), Infantry (Rajul), and Archers (Ramat).¹⁸

Weather, transport options and amenities, adequate rest, and space for soldiers were all closely considered when a mission was being planned. In addition, several doctors and surgeons, a treasury officer, an accountant, a qazi, and several translators were escorted with each army unit.¹⁹

All food from the stockpiles was gathered in one location and distributed on the first of each month by a separate commissariat division under the Army Department. Whereas, allowances²⁰ and pay was disbursed at the start of Muharram.

Furthermore, leave was granted to soldiers stationed in remote locations once or sometimes twice a year.

The army's aptitude and intelligence services are well-structured. The Caliph was kept fully informed about all army matters by dedicated correspondents assigned to each unit. Large-scale conquests in Iraq, Persia, Syria, and Egypt under the reign of the second rightly led caliph Umar (RA) attest to the army's and military organization's proficiency.

Before this period, resources were scarce, so there were no salaries or allowances. Muslims would volunteer for jihad when called upon by the holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and later by the first correctly guided Caliph Abu Bakar (RA). However, over time, as the Muslim State's resources grew, there was a need for a professional and well-equipped army trained in specialized battle skills. This initiative was taken during the second Caliph's reign, and appropriate records of salaries per annum were maintained based on merit and scales.²¹

Military Expansion

Under Umar’s (RA) keen leadership, the Islamic empire experienced unprecedented territorial expansion. The key regions added to Islamic states included:

Table 1. Territorial Expansion during Umar (RA) Leadership

Indeed, during the period of the second caliphate, the Islamic empire gained vast imperial power that stretched from Libya in the west to the Indus Valley in the east.

To govern and secure new territories, Umar (RA) established garrison towns, such as Kufa, Basra, and Fustat.²³ Moreover, there were separate military officers (or governors) in some districts. Although Amir was the commander of the army of provinces in most cases, changes were made several times according to need.²⁴ These governors were notable personalities who were either companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) or had conquered the territory they governed. Among these governors were Abu Ubaida (RA)²⁵, Utba bin Ghazwan (RA)²⁶, Abu Mousa Al-Ash'ari, Yazid bin Abi Sufyan (RA), Ameer Muawiah, Amar bin Al-A'as (RA)²⁷, Saad Bin Abi Waqas (RA)²⁸, Abu Mousa Al-Ash'ari (RA), Khalid Bin Al-A'as (RA), Ya’la Bin Umayyah (RA, A’ala bin Al Hazarmi (RA), Huzaifa bin Al Yaman, Nauman (RA), Ayyaz Bin Ghanam (RA), Alqma Bin Hakeem (RA), Alqama Bin Mujriz (RA), Saeed Bin Amir (RA), Umair bin Saad (RA), Amar Bin Saeed (RA), Khalid bin Hars Wahmani (RA) and Samurra bin Jundub (RA).²⁹

The era of the Second Caliphate is the time of inventions, revolutions, upheavals, insurgencies, modernizations, and technological advances and developments. The Muslim Ummah has produced innumerable outstanding fighters, commanders, and generals during this century.³⁰

In their significant roles as the Chief of the Muslim Army and other warriors, Khalid bin Al-Waleed (RA), Abu Ubaida bin Al-Jarrah (RA), and Saad bin Abi Waqas (RA) led small troops (marching towards the target assigned by the Caliph himself), either independently or occasionally under the direction of the central chief.³¹ This strategic military command shows how comprehensive the FML was at that time.

Administrative Reforms

Umar (RA) was indeed a forerunner of institutional governance. Despite contemporary public administration developing in post-colonial or secular settings, Umar’s leadership served as an early example of governance improvement.³² His caliphate used innovative statecraft based on Quranic justice to institutionalize moral leadership. The FLM shows that institutional rigor and Islamic ideals are not only compatible but have traditionally thrived together.

Figure 2. Administrative Reforms during the Umar (RA) Caliphate.

Judicial Administration and Law Enforcement

In Islamic history, Umar (RA) was the first one to distinguish courts from administrations. He separated judicial responsibilities from the executive power. During his reign, qazis’ were appointed at all levels of government to provide justice. Judges were not permitted to engage in any form of trade. All districts were assigned their judges, and a large number of judges were chosen from across the state.³³

For the first time in history, Umar e Farooq (RA) established a separate department of police and appointed police officials in the state to oversee the execution and enforcement of the law.³⁴ Umar (RA) appointed Abu Huraira (RA) as the first police officer in Bahrain.³⁵ Historical records of eminent judicial officers during his caliphate have been preserved. The Judge appointed in Madinah during Umar’s Caliphate was Zaid Bin Thabit (RA), who had extensive experience in Syria and was an expert in civil law.³⁶ He was succeeded by Abu Darda'a (RA). Another well-known judge was Ka'b-Bin Sur Al-Azdi (RA), who was appointed qazi of Basra. He was a brilliant man of keen insight and extensive intellect, many of whose remarks became standard and were also documented by Imam Ibn-e-Sirin.³⁷ Ubada Bin Samit (RA), the qazi of Palestine, was one of the five men who had memorized the entire Quran during the time of Prophet Muhammad (SAW).³⁸ Likewise, all the judges were men of eminent wisdom and learning. Among them were Abdullah Bin Masood (RA), the Qazi of Kufa, who is also referred to as the Father of the Hanafi Law, and Qazi Shuraih who was regarded as a model judge titled as Aqd-ul-Arab (the wisest of all Arabic judges).³⁹ The salaries of these judges ranged from 500 to 1000 dirhams, depending on their qualifications, intelligence, and expertise.⁴⁰

Political Administration

Under the rightly guided Caliphate of Umar (RA), the Muslim State was divided into several provinces.⁴¹ Although there was no consensus among historians regarding the exact number of provinces, the statistics were gathered from all accessible literature, and the following image of the provinces was identified.

Table 2. Provincial Division

Departments and Governing Officials

All provinces were further divided into subdivisions or districts, which were periodically restructured to meet administrative needs. There were very minor divisions, and Persia had only 47 districts at the time.⁴² All administrative units were under the command of a governor or a wali (ameer), and their officers were nominated and named as follows:

The Chief Secretary (Katib)

The Military Secretary (Katib-ud-Diwan)

The Revenue Collector (Sahib-i-Kharaj)

The Police Inspector (sahib-ul-Ahdas)

The Treasury Officer (Sahib-ul-Maal)

The Judge (Qazi)

Umar (RA) was the first person in Muslim history to propose the concept of a jail and send captives to a separate facility designated for that purpose. He even purchased Safwan Bin Umayyah’s (RA) house and converted it into a prison.⁴³

Accountability of Principal Officers

The system of Umar (RA)’s rule was so comprehensive that even principal officers, including him, were not exempted from accountability. Every officer needed to take an oath to avoid riding a Turkish Horse, refrain from wearing expensive clothes, and eat sifted flour; there would be no guard for safety purposes; and their residence’s door would be open to welcome everyone.⁴⁴ This oath conveyed the message that the ruling body is, in fact, a servant of the nation and that they will avoid luxurious living at the expense of the people they are serving. In this regard, a thorough inventory of the nominated person's possessions and personal information was made throughout the selection process and preserved in an official file. Office holders were immediately asked to provide explanations in the event of an irregular or sudden increase in property values.⁴⁵ A person was fired if they had any unlawful or defective belongings.

All public office holders were expected to attend the Hajj ceremony in the capital. During Hajj gatherings, Caliph Umar (RA) would publicly ask the populace whether anyone had any complaints against any governor or his deputies. If so, they were free to voice their opinions.⁴⁶ During Hajj, all issues were promptly and impromptu addressed, and all grievances were resolved. Umar (RA) used to address the public while outlining the duties of officers. He would say things like, “Brothers, these officers and generals are your protectors and your friends appointed to handle your affairs; they are not your masters or your slaves; rather, they are your guardians. If any of these appointed individuals violate the rules, come to me, and I will deal with them more effectively.⁴⁷

In addition, he set up a special accountability agency to investigate any objections to state authorities that were brought to the attention of the caliph. Muhammad Bin Maslamah Ansari (RA), a man of unquestionable honesty, was in charge of the Unit.⁴⁸ During dire circumstances, Caliph Umar (RA) often assigned him to visit and look into the matter or complaint and take appropriate actions accordingly.⁴⁹

An Investigation Commission was occasionally established to look into the charges. They called the officers to Madinah against whom the charges were made, and asked the Caliph himself for an explanation. Umar (RA) took care to compensate employees well to reduce the likelihood of deceit and exploitation.⁵⁰

Ambassadors, Diplomats and Delegators

The Caliph Umar Farooq (RA) sent numerous companions in various delegations to non-believers during his reign to preach Islam and extend an invitation to convert.⁵¹ On numerous other occasions, the opposing side requested that special diplomats be sent to the opposing armies and heads of foes to negotiate on the battlefield. Among these successful delegators, knowledgeable officers, and well-known Muslim ambassadors were Huzaifa Bin Mahsin (RA), Nauman Bin Maqran (RA), Qais Bin Zararah (RA), Asha’as Bin Qais (RA), Furat Bin Habban (RA), Asim Bin Umar (RA), Ruba’ai Bin Umar (RA), Amar Bin Ma’adi Karb (RA), Mugheera Bin Shu’aba (RA) and Masna Bin Haris (RA).

Religious Reforms

Legislation, Islamic Jurisprudence and Judicators (Fuqaha)

The Caliph Umar (RA) placed a strong focus on the value of Islamic jurisprudence, legislation, the Islamic constitution, and fiqh during his caliphate. He took decisive steps owing to the importance of jurisprudence. He established Madinah, the capital of the Islamic kingdom, as the epicenter of Islamic law and jurisprudence.⁵² He used to dispatch academics and intellectuals to other regions and provinces of the states as teachers, lawyers, qazis, and governors.⁵³

Although Abu Bakar (RA) was a great Islamic legislator and judge, and in fact, he was the one who initiated the laws in Islamic law and constitution by issuing his first rulings regarding Osama's (RA) expedition, battles against apostates, and battles against those who denied zakat.⁵⁴ However, he was unable to dedicate much time to the establishment, growth, and development of this field within his Caliphate due to his limited ruling period. Throughout first two Caliphates, Umar Bin Al Khattab (RA), Abdullah Bin Masood (RA), Ali Bin Abi Talib (RA), Zaid Bin Sabit (RA), Abdullah Bin Umar (RA), Abdullah Bin Abbas (RA), and Ayesha Siddiqa (RA) were the most genuine and active in issuing fatwas.⁵⁵ They were also trustworthy individuals who provided the majority of rulings and decisions in Islamic jurisprudence.

Social Policies

7.1. Advisory Council for Consultation

According to Quranic teachings, consultation is so imperative that an entire chapter is named after it. “Who respond to their Lord, establish prayer, conduct their affairs by mutual consultation, and donate from what We have provided for them”⁵⁶ Following these teachings, Umar (RA) made an additional body of the Advisory Council that provides support to the Caliph. They are subdivided into the following three bodies of council:

The upper house of Majlis e Shura: In this advisory council, both companion communities (Ansar and Muhajireen) are represented. In extreme situations, where difficult choices were to be made fast and with little warning, this special advisory council resolves the matters. The prestigious members of this council were: Usman (RA), Ali (RA), Zaid Bin Sabit (RA), Abdu r Rahman Bin Auf (RA), Muaaz bin Jabal (RA), Ubai Bin Ka’ab (RA).⁵⁷ In case of the absence of any member, Abbas Bin Abdul Muttalib and Abdullah Bin Abbas (RA) were occasionally called upon special request.

Lower house of Majlis e Shuara: All of the aforementioned companions and the leaders of every tribe were also members of another advisory council that dealt with different issues.

Summons of As-Salat ul Jamia: There was a third consultation council in addition to these two advisory councils. There were no strict rules regarding the number of members required for the consultation assembly. For the session of this third sort of assembly, the summons of As-Salat ul Jamia was issued, and the available companions gathered for the specific matter to be discussed by the Caliphate.

The purpose of these council bodies shows that Umar (RA)'s rule was all about participatory leadership, where he encouraged decision-making through inclusive dialogues.⁵⁸

Property Administration and Ownership

Following a thorough, thoughtful, rational, and critical deliberation, the Majlis-e-Shura took up the issue and made the following decision regarding land administration. The council passed the law that the conquered lands would remain the State’s property instead of the conquering forces. Moreover, the former occupants of lands would not be evicted, and their lands would remain in their possession provided that they pay definite taxes to the Muslim State.⁵⁹

Religious Freedom for Minorities

Social policies were made following the Islamic Shari’ah and Sunnah. However, Jews and Christians were given religious freedom under the dhimmi system.⁶⁰

Public Welfare

Public welfare was part and parcel of his rule. To serve this purpose public treasury (Bayt al-Mal) was specifically organized. People were provided access to healthcare, food banks and housing support. Even a stipend for the poor and elderly was allowed.⁶¹

Other notable social policy includes the creation of the Hijri calendar starting from the migration to Madinah.⁶²

Gibbon in his work appraises Umar in these words: “Yet the abstinence and humility of Umar were not inferior to the virtues of Abubeker; his food consisted of barley bread or dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or tattered in twelve places; and a Persian satrap who paid his homage to the conqueror, found him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosque of Medina.”⁶³

Syed Ameer Ali, in his History of the Saracens, has concluded Umar’s caliphate in these words:

“The death of Umar was a real calamity to Islam. Stern, but just, far-sighted, thoroughly versed in the character of his people, he was especially fitted for the leadership of the unruly Arabs. He had held the helm with a strong hand and severely repressed the natural tendency to demoralization among nomadic tribes and semi-civilized people when coming in contact with the luxury and vices of cities. He had established the Diwan or the Department of Finance, to which was entrusted the administration of the revenues, and had introduced fixed rules for the government of the provinces. He was a man of towering height, strong build, and fair complexion. Of simple habits, austere and frugal, always accessible to the meanest of his subjects, wandering about at night to inquire into the condition of the people, without any guard of court, such was the greatest and the most powerful ruler of the time.” ⁶⁴

Modern Day Relevance of Farooqian Leadership Model (Flm)

Based on the detailed study of the period of Umar’s Caliphate, the FLM model has the following features that have made it the most systematic system in the history of Islam.⁶⁵

Figure 3. Features of Farooqian Leadership Model.

The FLM model remains popular due to its comprehensive nature. Later generations of Muslims, specifically the era of the Golden Age of Islam, owed a great deal to this model. Preceded research has indicated that Muslim civilizations fall because of deviating from Islamic values and this model. Hence, to rise as the Muslim Ummah again, it is imperative to adopt and incorporate FML in our administrative and governmental systems. This model can be applied to various domains including Islamic leadership programs, ethical governance training, and even Business leadership models with a focus on justice, servant-leadership, and accountability. ⁶⁶

In the political domain, government officials ought to have public disclosure of their assets and properties. Moreover, presidents, prime ministers, and other government officials should not invest in businesses. Everyone is equally held accountable (for nobody is above the law and order), regardless of their prestige and status. Political parties, the army, and the judiciary should not intervene in maintaining justice and order. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the state to provide universal access to healthcare, food banks and housing support to civilians.

On the business level, ethical practices like merit-based hiring and promotions, good employer-employee relationships, fair wages, responsible supply chains, ethical marketing, etc., should be incorporated. In addition, price manipulation should be banned, and market integrity ought to be ensured. Similarly, multi-faith councils, interfaith outreach, and protection of minority rights should be incorporated in religious and community leadership.

Conclusion

Transformational leadership proposes that everybody is created to lead, if they lead only by right examples and values. The current study highlighted the enlightenment period of Islam under the visionary leadership of Umar ibn Khatab (RA), who became a visionary leader by acknowledging the larger context of human existence. By participating in performative actions, he aimed to bring change not only through his administrative reforms but also through his governance strategies, which also involved leadership and creativity. Transformative leadership is aspirational, which means it involves a mutual journey towards a progressive future. As such, it cannot be claimed that one can be a transformative leader; however, the instincts of transformational leadership and visionary strategies can be looked upon in the caliphate of Umar ibn Khattab. Thus, this study not only highlights the Golden Age of the Umar (RA) caliphate, but also draws its relevance to the modern-day FLM model, which necessitates Muslims to implement Islamic values and leadership skills in all core aspects of life.