Introduction

Emotions are what drive us, and emotions can lead us astray. No matter how logical and reasonable we think, we as humans are always driven and governed by emotional dilemmas that propel and

motivate us.¹ The concept of emotional intelligence refers to the ability to perceive, assess, and understand emotions, and to use this information to gain proficiency in positive emotional responses.² Emotions and reasons have long complemented each other to achieve emotional intelligence, particularly in Western traditions. However, in a broader context, emotional intelligence is the tacit knowledge that we use to regulate our own lives, especially the ability to adapt and facilitate our own thoughts and feelings.³

Scholars have determined that higher emotional intelligence tends to lead to better performance outcomes, which leads to greater success. Contrastively, Islamic values and teachings over the centuries have emphasized one’s emotions and cultivating modest character (akhlāq). The Qur’ān and hadīth have long emphasized the guidance of Seerah (the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad), such as practicing patience, compassion, empathy, humility, and self-restraint, which correlate with both psychology and emotional intelligence. Even though psychologists and philosophers emphasized different domains of emotional intelligence, most of them were accorded by Daniel Goleman (1995), who originally used the theory of emotional intelligence to predict modern-day organizations in developing soft skills. Goleman⁴ claimed that previous researchers were lacking in two things; firstly, emotional intelligence can be more essential in determining success in professional and social life. Secondly, it can be further perfected through proper training and guidance.⁵ However, the Qur’ān, long before the existence of emotional intelligence and theoretical perspectives, has given references to emotional intelligence in various Qur’ānic verses and Hadith, which were revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a direction to guide mankind.

1.1 Understanding Qur’ānic Emotional Intelligence

The Qur’ān serves as a holy scripture guiding the lives of Muslims worldwide, and was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad for all humanity. It addresses human intellect and consciousness as the teachings of tawhid (the oneness of God) and guides its people to worship Allah for spiritual purification and goodness in their deeds. The recommendation to read and interpret its meaning is a fundamentally acclaimed step for Muslims to understand the openness of the verses, which becomes a guiding purpose for a productive life.⁶ This reading will serve as a guiding source for Muslims to develop their intellect and explore the intellectual life that will significantly impact their lives. Religious education and emotional intelligence inherently seek success and good human characteristics; however, psychologists have claimed that only 20% of success can be guaranteed by intellectual intelligence, while the 80% still relies on one’s emotional intelligence.⁷

The heart is considered a primary source of feelings that carry pure emotions, wisdom, and empathy. The Qur’ān states that the heart signifies the divine essence and source of truth with different expressions. Prophet Muhammad stated: “O God!. O converter of heart! Establish our hearts in your religion.”⁸ Sufism has long associated the heart with intellectual and spiritual faculties, calling it the ultimate human truth. As stated by Imam al-Ghazali (1058-1111), “it is the heart that empowers man to gain knowledge of God and to draw near him. He further added, “the higher level of consciousness cannot be attained except by the purification of human ego (nafs), cleaning of heart and soul (qalb), and nourishing spirit (Rūh).⁹

Figure 1. Consciousness to gain knowledge of GOD and his attributes.¹⁰

At the precursor, it must be recognized that Islamic teachings always look for the definite reason behind the creation of anything, as Allah says in the Qur’ān, “He didn’t create the universe for a foolish purpose.”¹¹ He created us out of different emotions, and the regulation of these key emotions: anger, happiness, grief, love, and hatred serve the purpose in terms of emotional intelligence.¹² The Seerah of Prophet Muhammad has always encouraged people to understand their emotions and to control their negative feelings. As narrated by Anas bin Malik, “a man was with Prophet Muhammad when another man passed by and said ‘O Messenger of Allah! I admire this man for the sake of Allah. Prophet Muhammad advised this man to convey this message to him.”¹³ In this way, Prophet Muhammad taught his followers emotional literacy and how to recognize and express positive emotions.

Figure 2. Aspects of Qur’ānic Emotional Intelligence ¹⁴

The significance of this study is twofold; firstly, it aims to contribute to the deeper understanding of emotional intelligence, and secondly, it highlights the religious paradigms and prophetic model in Seerah literature to direct a cross-cultural approach of EI research. The research is divided into sub-sections. This study reviewed literature on emotional intelligence in management and leadership alongside the field of psychology, and then draws a conclusion integrating it with Islamic theology and teaching practices.

Literature Review

Emotions play a crucial role in life, which has multifarious implications. At times, they act as psychosomatic systems, like perceptions, memory, motivational priorities, and learning.¹⁵ A substantial body of research in organizational behavior has linked emotional intelligence to positive outcomes in the workplace. Leaders with high emotional intelligence tend to exhibit more effective leadership styles, such as transformational or servant leadership, that inspire and motivate subordinates. A recent comprehensive literature review affirmed that “emotionally intelligent leaders improve both behaviors and business results and have an impact on work team performance,” and that emotional competence in leaders correlates positively with team members’ attitudes and work climate.¹⁶

Emotional intelligence enhances communication, facilitates effective conflict management, and enables individuals to navigate organizational change more effectively.¹⁷ Studies have found that emotional competencies account for a significant portion of the skills that distinguish high performers in various jobs. Goleman’s analysis of workplace success suggested that emotional competencies can make up “two out of three essential skills,” for superior job performance across many roles. In leadership contexts, both researchers and business executives increasingly recognize that cognitive intelligence (IQ) alone is insufficient; emotional and social skills are crucial for managing the complex interpersonal challenges of modern organizations.¹⁸

2.1. The Emergence of the Spiritual Dimension and Intelligence

Spirituality exists in the heart and mind of humans within traditional and religious traditions. It represents ultimate concern, which is present in all individuals; however, ultimate concern can have distinct meanings. Spirituality, like emotions, has varying depths and emotions; it can be conscious, it can be unconscious, developed or undeveloped, or it can be transcendental, belonging to the ultimate connection or ground of being. It relies on experiences, not stages; therefore, it can be a devotion, commitment or practice that contributes to the good in life.¹⁹ Islam closely relates emotional intelligence with spiritual intelligence, as it can only be achieved if one has attained spiritual intelligence, which is a depiction of controlled and manageable emotions.²⁰

2.2 Intelligence and Religiosity

There has been an ongoing interest in the relationship between intelligence and religiosity.²¹ Several interpretations have been proposed, claiming that people with high intellect are less likely to conform, and thus they are resistant towards religious dogma; however, some are of the view that intellectual people have a developed thinking style, which promotes religious disbelief.²² A current study reported that religiosity is associated with social and emotional cognition.²³ Researchers have also claimed that religious communities serve as an emotionally intelligent organization, where acquiring emotional abilities, such as prayers, rituals, and meditation, contribute to overall well-being.²⁴

Emotional Intelligence in Management and Leadership

Significantly, the perceptions of workers impact the performance outcome of an organization. Thus, Personal Management (PM) analyses employees' opinions, intelligence, capability, and skill set to group success factors. These factors influence individual components, such as how they perceive things, regulate emotions, and control disruptive impulses for self-regulation. Internal motivation is the passion that develops in an individual, and acts as an eternal reward, encompassing empathy to treat emotions and various leadership situations. Social skills in this act as a building block, which binds intelligence with emotions, emotions with regulation and control, leading to leadership, which prevails empathy and social skills.²⁵

The Bar-On theory, introduced by EI constructs that act as an interconnected behavior from a person’s social and emotional competencies. These competencies rely on self-expression, self-perception, decision-making, interpersonal skills, and stress management. Like, Goleman’s framework, this model also relied on the cognitive and social behaviour of an individual that intersects the individual's perception about emotional skills and competencies.²⁶ Islamic tradition highly values what we now classify as emotional intelligence:

self-awareness (knowing one’s inner spiritual state), self-control (controlling impulses like anger and greed), motivation (intentions driven by higher purpose and hope in God’s reward), empathy and mercy towards others (as repeatedly commanded in scripture), and social skills (good manners, consulting others, reconciling between people). The teachings of Islam encourage believers to aspire to the character of Prophet Muhammad, who embodied all these qualities to the highest degree. This implies that a person must understand their weaknesses and strengths to control his feelings and emotions, in order to resolve them in the aspects of EI and religious perspective. Leadership influences management practices, and these practices can only be acquired by emotional and social intelligence because they tend to resolve behavorial complexities in a human behavior.²⁷

Theoretical Conceptualization

The study follows a qualitative, interdisciplinary approach that relies on classical Islamic teachings and practices, and on contemporary sources of emotional intelligence. The comparative analysis approach is used to describe concepts, frameworks and theories of emotional intelligence in psychology, and the prophetic emotional model as seerah. The study heavily relied on an extensive body of literature synthesizing insights from the Qur’ān and Sunnah, yet also reviewing research present on emotional intelligence and management to give an interdisciplinary discourse analysis. This study relied on the pioneers of emotional intelligence, Daniel Goleman (1995) and his five components, which are used to categorize various emotional competencies. He identified that self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills influence human behavior. So, this study identified each node idiosyncratically with Islamic teachings and practices. Examples from seerah literature depict the direct pertinence of emotional management, which is showcased in the Prophet Muhammad's life, leadership, and character traits. Thus, indicating that modern management principles are guided by the directions of seerah through his participative leadership and consultative decisions.

Analysis and Discussion

Knowing the Self: The Foundation of Inner Awareness

From an Islamic perspective, true self-awareness is tied to humility. Recognizing one’s emotional states should lead to acknowledging one’s dependence on God and areas for personal growth. Prophet Muhammad was exceedingly humble despite his high status. When anything good happened, he credited God, and when things didn’t go as expected, he was the first to seek if any mistake on his part might have caused it (though in reality, he did not wrong others). For instance, after the setback in the Battle of Uhud,²⁸ he engaged in collective consultation and introspection with his companions, rather than blaming them harshly, showing awareness that, as a leader, he needed to reassure and realign the team for future challenges.²⁹

Relevance to SEI in Modern Management

Self-awareness in leadership has been linked to better decision-making and authenticity. Leaders who understand their own emotional triggers are less likely to make impulsive decisions under stress. Instead, they can recognize (“I am feeling angry/frustrated due to this setback”) and then respond rather than react. The Prophetic example encourages leaders today to cultivate this self-reflective habit. Just as Umar ibn al-Khattab urged daily self-accounting, executives and managers can benefit from regular reflection through journaling, meditation/prayer, or soliciting honest feedback from colleagues to gauge their emotional well-being and its effect on their leadership. Modern leadership development programs often include 360-degree feedback and personality assessments to enhance self-awareness.³⁰

An Islamic approach would add an ethical/spiritual dimension: for instance, reminding a leader to assess not just “How effective was I today?” but also “Were my intentions pure? Did I treat people with respect? What emotions did I allow to drive me, and were they appropriate?” Research has shown that higher self-awareness in executives correlates with organizational financial performance; one study found that companies with strong financial performance tended to have employees with higher levels of self-awareness at all levels compared to poorly performing companies. This is arguably because self-aware individuals communicate more openly, are more realistic in their planning, and can adjust their behaviors for the good of the team.³¹

Role of Self-Regulation and Emotional Intelligence in Human Behavior

Self-regulation, also called self-management, is the ability to handle one’s emotions so that they facilitate rather than hinder the task at hand. It includes staying composed and positive under pressure, controlling disruptive impulses and moods, and thinking before acting. Key aspects of self-regulation are impulse control, trustworthiness (because one does not let temporary emotion sway one’s integrity), adaptability to change, and comfort with ambiguity. In a workplace context, a leader with high self-regulation maintains calm in a crisis, does not lash out at colleagues when stressed, and can channel frustration into problem-solving ³²

Self-regulation provides the emotional balance needed for sound decision-making and maintaining professional relationships.³³ Psychologically, it corresponds to resilience and conscientiousness. Goleman and others have noted that “the ability to control impulses” is a strong predictor of success, often more so than raw intellect, because it enables goal-oriented behavior and reliability.³⁴

The virtue of restraining negative emotions and impulses is repeatedly emphasized in Islam. The Arabic term sabr (patience) encapsulates a broad range of meanings, including patience, perseverance, endurance, and self-restraint. Throughout the Qur’ān, believers are urged to exercise sabr in the face of hardships, provocations, and even in doing good (e.g., maintaining patience in worship). One of the most striking Qur’ānic accolades is for those “who swallow their anger and forgive people.”³⁵ The imagery of “swallowing anger” suggests not allowing it to be externally expressed in a harmful way, essentially describing emotional self-regulation. The Prophet Muhammad declared, “The strong person is not the one who can overpower others (in wrestling); rather, the strong one is he who can control himself when angry.”³⁶

This hadīth, reported in Bukhari and Muslim, highlights that true strength is moral and emotional strength, not merely physical force. Another famous hadith, when a man asked the Prophet for advice, was: “Do not get angry.” The man repeated his request multiple times, and each time the Prophet consistently replied, “Do not get angry.”³⁷ According to the report, the Prophet chose to focus on anger management as the single most important advice, knowing that uncontrolled anger can lead to a host of other sins and regrets.³⁸ The insistence “do not become angry,” does not mean never feeling the emotion of anger, which is humanly impossible, but rather not succumbing to it or acting on it improperly. Islamic scholars explain that anger itself is not haram (for example, anger at injustice can be constructive if handled rightly), but one must control its expression and channel it towards positive outcomes or suppress it when it’s unjustified.³⁹

Prophetic Motivation: Aligning Emotion with Meaningful Action

In the context of emotional intelligence, motivation refers to the use of emotional factors to achieve goals, enjoy the learning process, persevere in the face of obstacles, and remain optimistic despite setbacks. It often specifically denotes intrinsic motivation – a passion to work for internal reasons that go beyond money or status, such as personal growth, the joy of doing something meaningful, or the achievement of a vision. Key traits of the emotionally intelligent form of motivation include a strong drive to achieve, commitment to one’s goals, initiative, and optimism. Goleman identified motivation (particularly achievement motivation and optimism) as one of the core components of emotional intelligence because individuals who are emotionally adept channel their emotions to fuel positive action and are less likely to be discouraged by failure. In leadership, motivated leaders inspire others through their own enthusiasm and commitment; they model persistence and a can-do attitude that can lift a team’s morale. Islam is a religion that strongly emphasizes intention (niyyah) and purposeful action. In Islamic teachings, the value of an action is largely dependent on the intention behind it – as stated in the famous hadīth, “Verily actions are [judged] by intentions, and each person will have but that which he intended…”⁴⁰ This focus on intention cultivates intrinsic motivation: a believer is taught to seek the pleasure of God and the betterment of self and society as the highest aims, rather than merely worldly recognition.⁴¹

Emotional Resonance: Practicing Empathy in Human Interactions

Empathy is the practice of understanding others' feelings and emotions, and positively responding to them. Western scholars have written much about the Qur’ān, yet less has been written about emotions. Studies have highlighted that, emotions carry the power to convince believers to act as they should, as emotional words and incidents bring unity and empathy in human interactions.⁴² Although emotions are universal, they carry socially constructed elements accordingly to social functions. Thereby, controlling emotions requires a regulatory attachment to God, which is a prime medium to trace emotional plots through the Qur’ānic chapters or surahs.⁴³ Islam is concerned about the emotional stability of humans, and it teaches us to manage our emotions so that Muslims avoid actions that are prohibited by religion. Allah discusses in his Holy book (Qur’ān), 337 times the emotions of fear, mercy, feeling, happiness, pain, and anger in many verses that aimed to describe the variation of human emotions.⁴⁴ Goleman’s framework of empathy falls under the self-awareness category, which allows individuals to respect others' feelings to maintain good relationships with others.⁴⁵

Figure 3. Key Traits of Performance⁴⁶

Leaders are attributed with various skills, while a prominent good leadership requires empathy in leadership practices.⁴⁷ Empathetic leaders effectively understand others’ and situations, and are willing to support and take care of others. However, empathy varies from person to person and situation to situation, which requires a process-oriented approach in general.⁴⁸ Islam portrays a similar picture of leadership, which should carry a mandate of responsibility not only towards Allah but also towards his followers. It is the leadership qualities of Prophet Muhammad, which placed him as a wise leader, role model, and as Al-Amīn.⁴⁹ M. Quraish highlighted that, “there are two verses of the Qur'ān that mention the word 'Khalifah' (caliph) addressed to two prophets, namely Prophet Adam⁵⁰ to be given the task of managing the earth as a whole at the beginning of the history of humanity and Prophet Daud AS⁵¹ who was given the power to manage the Palestinian territories in the period 9471000 BC.”⁵² Likewise, the prophetic duty of Prophet Muhammad was characterized by four key traits; trustworthy, honest, tablīgh, (communication) and fathanah (intelligence).⁵³

Prophetic Social Intelligence and Interpersonal Influence in Relations

Communication is an important aspect in social, personal, and religious life.⁵⁴ Prophet Muhammad is known as a skilled communicator who conveyed the teachings of Islam with wisdom, empathy, and effective strategies that promoted social intelligence in every aspect of life. Prophet’s hadiths prescribed that they not only conveyed wisdom of speech, but they also used words of empathy in both verbal and non-verbal communication. Additionally, these hadiths emphasized the importance of communication as a means of preaching and spreading knowledge that is beneficial to the people. Likewise, great scholars, such as Ghazali in his monumental work Ihya' Ulum al-Din, emphasized the importance of ethics in communication, which included honesty, sincerity, and self-control in speaking. Furthermore, Al-Qaradawi (2006), in his book Min fiqh al-Dawlah fi al-Islam,⁵⁵ also mentioned that “good communication is communication that brings people closer to goodness, regardless of the differences in social status, religion, or ethnicity. In this context, the communication carried out by the Prophet Muhammad was not only aimed at conveying a message, but also to strengthen emotional relationships, build mutual understanding, and create a sense of security among his people.”⁵⁶

The Prophet Muhammad managed to maintain good relations not only with those who loved him, but even with some who did not believe in him. He established treaties with Jewish tribes in Medina, ensuring mutual rights and obligations, wrote letters to neighboring rulers with respectful greetings inviting them to Islam, and accepted invitations from non-Muslims (e.g., dining with a Jewish neighbor, visiting a sick Jewish boy, which led to the boy’s conversion out of love). His ability to engage diplomatically with people of different faiths and to ensure the Muslim community upheld justice with them (there are accounts where a Muslim and a Jew had a dispute and the Prophet judged in favour of the Jew based on evidence, showing impartial justice) set a standard for intergroup social relations. Today’s leaders similarly must manage relationships with clients, partners, and even competitors, often across cultural divides. Principles of fairness, respectful dialogue, and finding common interests (all exemplified by the Prophet are timeless guides for the Muslim Ummah.⁵⁷

Conclusion

The study explored emotional intelligence as a lived experience of Prophet Muhammad, which has revealed a rich convergence of contemporary EI components not only in the Seerah perspective but also in leadership and management. Emotional intelligence is centered on self-awareness, self-regulation, and motivation, which are intrinsic qualities for effective leadership, transcending the widely regarded fundamentals of effective leadership. The analysis highlighted that, individuals having high positive EI can create a positive environment by practicing empathy, humility, and positive behavior not only in their behavior but in communication as well. A positive attitude leads to spiritual intelligence. Moreover, relating these principles to contemporary management and organizational behavior theories revealed strong parallels: the Prophetic model of behavior often mirrors what current research identifies as best practices for effective leadership and healthy workplace dynamics.